Yemen’s Ancient Treasures Under Threat as Renewed Houthi Fighting Raises Fears of Heritage Destruction and Smuggling

The war has left archaeological sites in ruins, destroyed museums and undermined the ability to safeguard invaluable treasures, and may hasten the loss of Yemen's cultural heritage, officials say.

The renewed fighting in Yemen is placing a new question on the agenda: How much of the country's remarkable cultural heritage can be preserved from destruction, looting, and illegal trade and trafficking? Archaeological sites, historic buildings and museum collections are severely damaged as a result of over 10 years of conflict. Renewed fighting in the country between the Houthi movement has raised fresh fears that further casualties may be incurred as the institutions charged with safeguarding the country's heritage are still very much under-strength.

The consequences of the recent military events on archaeological sites and museum collections have not been fully assessed, but are significant. Heritage protection has been affected by conflict, its administration split and the ability of government bodies to monitor at-risk sites has diminished. These conditions can lead to the spread of looting and the opportunity for stolen goods to gain access to international markets via long and complex chains of intermediaries.

The danger is more than just to the physical fabric of the ancient structures. The loss of any historic building, either due to damage or removal, can mean that researchers are deprived of information on the archaeology of Yemen and the communities whose lives have been shaped over centuries by cultural and architectural traditions. The threat is thus material and historical: Yemen faces the loss of irreplaceable evidence of civilisations that have formed society.

War Has Already Destroyed a Significant Portion of Yemen’s Archaeological Heritage

The extent of the damage suffered from Yemen's conflict is evident in the studies conducted by Mohammed Ali Thamer, the director general of cultural statistics at the Ministry of Culture in Sanaa. His research projects that about 477 of the 2,318 archaeological sites noted in the Archaeological Atlas of the Yemen (2014) may have been totally or partially destroyed during the conflict.

The figures show the great intensity with which an ancient settlement pattern, monumental architecture, burial grounds and remains relating to historic kingdoms have been affected by a heritage landscape. Thamer's research is based on ministry records, statistical information and data from the Yemen Data Project and was prepared for the independent Yemeni think tank, the Sanaa Center.

His findings also reveal 775 destructive operations against cultural sites from 2014 to 2025, the time period of his research. Although they do not mark the exact scale of each individual loss or the total amount of damage which may have been unreported, they are a disturbing sign of the impact of the conflict.

The new addition of the escalation throws in another uncertainty. Archaeological sites that have remained intact for years after years of violence can now be exposed again to shelling, armed conflict, neglect and illegal excavations. When there is direct attack on an ancient monument, the immediate reaction is often to offer to protect it from harm. But when the security and public administration breaks down, even in the immediate vicinity of the monument, the result can be a potentially dangerous situation.

The Old City of Sanaa (Yemen), which has served as an example of a historic city in an unstable area, demonstrates the need for protecting historic urban environments during periods of instability. The old city is known for its traditional tower houses, its intricate decorative features and its distinctive architecture and is a remarkable record of the country's urban history. Avoidance of direct attack is only one aspect of its survival, the maintenance of buildings, prevention of unauthorised alterations and the ability of the conservation process to continue are also essential.

The main issue for cultural heritage specialists is that the damage caused over the years might be harder to undo if the war drags on. Conservation needs trained staff, sustainable resources, and on the ground access to impacted areas, and accurate documentation. Once these resources are gone, even moderate damage can turn to structural decay in the long term.

Ancient Tombs and Archaeological Sites Face Growing Looting Risks

Unapproved excavation has become another serious threat in addition to the damage to caused by fighting. Thamer's research uncovers a fresh phenomenon of looting in the governorates of Marib, Al-Jawf and Shabwa during the current conflict. It has been reported that individuals are using these areas as targets to loot ancient burial grounds and cultural sites for purposes of acquiring gold and artifacts for resale.

Even if the artifacts are physically unaltered, the activities may destroy the archaeological remains. The significance of an artefact to science is partly dependent on its original context, the context of the surrounding material and the relationships between different finds. The lack of professional supervision in excavation can destroy these relationships, making the reconstruction of the history of those who made or used the objects much more difficult.

In communities where there is economic stress, the lure of financial rewards for illegal excavation can be particularly strong. The lack of state protection and legitimate employment opportunities may lead to the treatment of artifacts as commodities which can be used to generate immediate income. The quick money from the sale of an object, however, may result in the loss of the community's historic record forever.

The magnitude of the international trade in Yemeni antiquities is hard to assess. Thamer's estimates estimate that between 10,000 and 14,000 Yemeni artifacts are kept outside the country. The antiquities authorities of Yemen have independently identified some 8,000 objects that they believe were smuggled out of the country during the war.

The above figures do not necessarily represent a complete count of stolen items. They report estimates and reported cases, and do not provide a comprehensive national account. Still, they suggest the magnitude of the problem for those who are trying to determine the location of missing artifacts and cultural remains.

Lacking records, there are many questions about what objects have gone missing, where they came from, and when they were introduced to the international market. The chain of ownership of an artifact can be complex, with more than one owner between its discovery and ownership, and incomplete documentation can increase the difficulty of determining if an export is historical or recent, illegal or lawful.

Weakened Institutions Create Opportunities for Trafficking Networks

Anaween Center for Research and Transformation Studies in Aden’s President Saleh Al-Baydani says that the weakness of state institutions has enabled antiquities trafficking to thrive in Yemen.

The weakness of institutions is important for the illicit trade. The protection of the archaeological remains relies on the collaboration of museums, police, customs services, local administrations, researchers and judicial bodies. If these organizations have a poor ability to communicate or enforce authority over a fractured landscape, then objects can be more easily taken away with the possibility of being transported across borders.

Al-Baydani noted that the sale of antiquities is "rarely done by a single individual or one organization. The process may be more complex, starting with illegal excavations or theft from a museum, storage facility or archaeological site. The object can then go to domestic intermediaries, across-border shipping networks and dealers and finally to auction houses, private collectors or other foreign buyers.

The artifacts may be harder to trace in each stage. The object's original location may be unknown, the ownership history may be incomplete or the descriptions may have been changed to make the object seem less suspicious. Sometimes objects may be kept for years before being put up for sale.

Corruption or political influence/protection by armed actors could also be a benefit for networks in conflict areas. It is important to understand that these options make the investigations more complicated and for trafficking to be solved you can't always retrieve an item. Authorities need to know about the relationships, financial inducements and transportation avenues that enable illicit trade to persist.

The poor state of Yemen's heritage institutions is thus a more than administrative challenge. It can have a direct effect on the potential for criminals to benefit from cultural losses. To restore effective protection means to build up stronger records, better co-operation between the relevant agencies and continued attention to the means by which artefacts are exported.

Yemen’s Historic Cities and Ancient Kingdoms Remain at Risk

Yemen's archaeological and architectural heritage is of an extraordinary variety and covers various ages of the country's history. The Old City of Sanaa, the historic town of Zabid, archaeological sites related to the ancient Kingdom of Saba in Marib and walled city of Shibam in Hadramawt are among the well-known sites.

They are significant for various reasons. Traditional urban architecture and settlement patterns are maintained in historic urban centers and archaeological remains provide evidence of political organization, commerce, religion, cultural exchange over time.

The Kingdom of Saba, linked with Marib, has a special significance in the study of the pre-Islamic history of Yemen. The archaeological remains are associated with the kingdom, allowing researchers to examine the evolution of southern Arabian societies and their interactions with other societies in the region.

However, when the security situation is compromised, these sites can be threatened. Military action can cause direct harm to structures and armed service can make it difficult for conservation teams to access such property. There may be times when guards are absent and looting can happen, and local residents may not be able to stop unauthorized excavations.

If there is any more fighting, there will be other historical sites that will be lost, looted, and smuggled, Al-Baydani has warned. His concern is a direct result of the cumulative nature of the crisis; with each passing day of violence in Yemen the situation has grown more hopeless, and the next act of violence could set the stage for further devastation.

It's not just monuments that are the focus of challenge. Burial grounds, historic structures and smaller archaeological sites have the potential to be just as significant to the local history but are less likely to be protected and harder to monitor. Therefore, the preservation plan must also include not only the well-known landmarks but also include less well known sites.

Ideological Disputes Add Another Dimension to Heritage Protection

Al-Baydani has also raised concerns about what he regards as ideological opposition within the Houthi movement to aspects of Yemen’s pre-Islamic history. He points to published lectures by Hussein Al-Houthi, the movement’s founder, in which Al-Houthi criticized Yemenis for celebrating their Sabaean and Himyarite heritage.

According to Al-Baydani’s account, Al-Houthi dismissed ancient monuments in Marib as little more than the remains of columns and portrayed the promotion of pre-Islamic civilizations as an effort to draw Yemenis back toward their pre-Islamic past.

Al-Baydani argues that such statements raise questions about how historical identity is understood by the movement’s leadership. In his view, the issue extends beyond the ordinary dangers that warfare presents to cultural sites because it involves competing interpretations of which parts of the country’s history deserve recognition.

These are Al-Baydani’s assessments of the movement’s ideological outlook, rather than independent proof that every act of destruction or looting is motivated by ideology. Establishing responsibility for individual incidents requires evidence about the circumstances, the actors involved and the reasons for their actions.

Nevertheless, the broader debate highlights the importance of protecting heritage across political and religious divisions. Yemen’s archaeological record predates the modern conflict and encompasses multiple civilizations, religious traditions and periods of cultural exchange. Its historical value does not depend on whether contemporary political actors agree with the beliefs or practices of the people who created it.

Preserving these remains should therefore be treated as a shared responsibility. Ancient monuments are not merely symbols that competing groups can claim or reject; they are sources of evidence that allow future generations to understand the complexity of Yemen’s past.

UNESCO Warnings Highlight the Wider Cultural Emergency

International concern about Yemen’s cultural heritage has also been expressed by Mohammed Jumeh, the country’s permanent delegate to UNESCO. In September, Jumeh warned that heritage properties were endangered by the effects of war, which had caused extensive damage to cultural and historical landmarks throughout the country.

He also highlighted the threats facing hundreds of additional archaeological and heritage locations, particularly from looting.

The warning underscores the difference between protecting a limited number of famous monuments and safeguarding an entire national heritage landscape. Even when prominent sites receive international attention, numerous smaller locations may remain exposed because local authorities lack the resources to monitor them.

Thamer’s research also documents the military use of archaeological locations by Houthi forces. One example is the ancient city of Baraqish, which the militia seized in August 2014. Before withdrawing in early April 2016, Houthi forces reportedly planted landmines around the outskirts.

The reported use of landmines creates a particularly difficult legacy. Explosive hazards can prevent archaeologists, conservators and local residents from safely accessing a site long after military forces have departed. They may also obstruct assessments needed to determine the extent of damage and identify objects that have disappeared.

These examples demonstrate why heritage protection must be incorporated into wider efforts to reduce the impact of conflict on civilian and cultural infrastructure. Military operations can create lasting barriers to research and conservation, while insecurity makes it harder to establish what has been damaged or removed.

International attention is important, but warnings alone cannot secure vulnerable locations. Effective protection requires practical measures, including documentation, cooperation with local communities, safer access for specialists and efforts to prevent the unauthorized movement of artifacts.

Museums Have Lost Collections and Struggle to Establish What Is Missing

Yemen’s museums have experienced extensive damage and looting during the conflict. Thamer has identified 12 of the country’s 22 museums as having been damaged or looted, illustrating the scale of the challenge facing institutions that were established to preserve the nation’s historical record.

One of the most devastating examples is the Regional Museum in Dhamar, which was destroyed. Before its destruction, the museum held approximately 12,500 objects. The loss represents a major blow to the preservation of archaeological material and the ability of researchers and the public to study the region’s history.

Museums in Aden, Taiz, Al-Mukalla and Ataq have also been affected by fighting and looting. Other collections in Ibb Governorate, including those at Al-Oud, Al-Mashneh, Dhafar and Jibla, were reportedly almost completely looted. Much of the collection held by the Military Museum in Sanaa was confiscated.

The consequences extend beyond the disappearance of individual objects. Museums maintain records that connect artifacts with their origins, acquisition histories and archaeological significance. When buildings are damaged and inventories are lost, authorities may struggle to identify missing objects or prove where particular items were held before the conflict.

Such gaps can create opportunities for artifacts to enter illicit markets. An object removed from a museum may later be described as coming from an old private collection, while the absence of accessible records can make it difficult for investigators to challenge the claim.

Rebuilding museums will therefore require more than repairing roofs, walls and exhibition rooms. Institutions must also reconstruct inventories, preserve surviving records, document damage and establish secure systems for storing collections. Where possible, these efforts should include digital copies of catalogs and photographs that can remain accessible even if physical archives are threatened.

Recovered Artifacts in the United States Illustrate the Challenges of Repatriation

A case involving 77 ancient Yemeni artifacts seized in the United States demonstrates the practical difficulties of protecting cultural property during a prolonged conflict.

In 2023, the US State Department and Yemen’s embassy asked the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Asian Art in Washington to take custody of the objects. The request raised an important question: how could artifacts be returned to their country of origin while ensuring their safety and preservation under difficult circumstances?

Chase Robinson, the museum’s director, explained that the objects had been in the custody of the US government. The Yemeni ambassador and the State Department subsequently asked the museum to look after them because the circumstances in Yemen complicated their return.

The objects were formally repatriated to the Yemeni government but remain in the museum’s care under an arrangement that allows them to be preserved and, in some cases, displayed.

The collection includes 65 funerary stelae, or stone slabs, from northwestern Yemen, dating to the second half of the first millennium BC. It also includes 11 pages from a ninth-century copy of the Quran.

The manuscript pages had reportedly been concealed behind a photograph inside a picture frame. They were intercepted after being sent from Yemen to an address in the United States and are believed to have originated in documents taken from the Great Mosque of Sanaa, one of the world’s oldest mosques.

The case illustrates the complexity of restitution. Returning cultural objects is not simply a matter of identifying their country of origin and arranging transportation. Authorities must also consider security, conservation requirements, legal custody and the conditions under which the objects can be protected after repatriation.

Temporary arrangements with reputable institutions may help preserve vulnerable artifacts while their home countries work to rebuild the facilities and administrative systems necessary for their long-term care. Such arrangements, however, depend on clear agreements and respect for the ownership rights of the country concerned.

Smuggling Methods Make Provenance Checks Essential

Danielle Bennett, the Smithsonian museum’s deputy director for collections and exhibitions, has described a method of concealing the origin of cultural objects as the “Hobby Lobby method.” The approach involves presenting an object as an ordinary modern item, such as a tile, while falsifying its documentation in the hope that a shipment will not be inspected.

The example demonstrates how the illicit antiquities trade can depend on misleading descriptions and incomplete paperwork rather than dramatic thefts that immediately attract public attention.

Larger objects can also be altered to facilitate transportation. Robinson noted that some statues have been separated into pieces, making them easier to handle and move. Such practices can inflict additional physical damage on objects whose artistic and historical significance may depend on their original form.

In response to these risks, the National Museum of Asian Art has adopted stricter provenance requirements. It insists on documentation showing that objects were removed from their countries of origin legally and ethically.

Provenance refers to an object’s ownership and movement history. Reliable provenance can help establish whether an artifact was lawfully acquired, exported and transferred between owners. When records contain unexplained gaps, buyers and institutions have stronger reasons to investigate before proceeding with a transaction.

For artifacts originating in countries affected by conflict, these checks are particularly important. War may disrupt archives and make historical documentation difficult to obtain, but those difficulties should encourage more careful scrutiny rather than automatic acceptance of unverified claims.

Auction houses, museums, dealers and private collectors all have a role to play in preventing stolen objects from gaining legitimacy through repeated sales. Thorough checks can reduce the financial rewards available to traffickers and make it harder to disguise recently looted material as an established private collection.

London Auction Disputes Raise Questions About Ownership Histories

Yemen’s General Organization of Antiquities and Museums has expressed concern about objects offered at auctions in London in July by Bonhams and Apollo Art Auctions.

Among the items offered by Bonhams was a South Arabian alabaster head of a woman, dated to approximately 2,000 years ago and estimated at between £5,000 and £8,000. A large South Arabian male head was estimated at between £20,000 and £30,000. Neither object found a buyer.

Bonhams said the male head came from a private collection formed in Aden and had been exported before November 1967, when Britain withdrew from the territory. The auction house told Arab News that it had reviewed the provenance and was satisfied that the objects had been lawfully placed on the market.

Apollo Art Auctions also rejected allegations that it had knowingly offered unlawfully obtained or looted antiquities. The company cited its due-diligence procedures and the screening of objects against the Art Loss Register.

These disputes do not establish that the objects were stolen. The claims and responses must be distinguished from a verified finding that any particular artifact was unlawfully removed from Yemen.

Nevertheless, the cases illustrate why ownership histories deserve careful examination when artifacts originate in countries experiencing prolonged conflict and documented heritage losses. Historical export claims, previous ownership records and available export documentation may all be relevant to determining whether an object can legitimately be sold.

Al-Baydani has urged the British Museum and auction houses to publish provenance records for objects identified by Yemeni authorities and cooperate with independent reviews. He argues that objects shown to have been removed unlawfully should be withdrawn from sale and returned.

The principle is straightforward: institutions and buyers should be able to explain where an artifact came from, how it changed hands and when it first entered the international market. Where evidence raises credible concerns, transparent investigation is essential.

International Buyers Can Help Reduce the Incentives for Looting

The international antiquities market is an important part of the wider discussion because stolen objects can generate profits long after the original theft has occurred. Once an artifact reaches a buyer who is willing to accept questionable documentation, the transaction may reward the people who removed it and the intermediaries who transported it.

Al-Baydani has cautioned against assigning responsibility to individual institutions or collectors without sufficient evidence. At the same time, he argues that anyone dealing in antiquities has a clear responsibility to conduct rigorous due diligence.

A credible chain of ownership is particularly important. Dealers and buyers should seek relevant export records, examine earlier sales and establish when and how an object first appeared on the international market. Claims based solely on vague references to an old collection may not provide sufficient assurance, especially when the object's country of origin has experienced widespread looting.

Transparency can also help researchers and investigators identify objects that have disappeared from museums or archaeological sites. Published catalogs, photographs and provenance records provide information that can be compared with inventories maintained by cultural authorities.

Where credible concerns emerge, auction houses can delay a sale while the evidence is reviewed. Museums can investigate acquisitions, and private collectors can cooperate with legitimate restitution claims. These actions can help prevent disputed objects from circulating indefinitely without meaningful scrutiny.

The objective should not be to assume that every Yemeni artifact abroad was stolen. Some objects may have been exported legally decades ago, and the circumstances surrounding individual items differ. Rather, the goal should be to establish facts through documentation and independent investigation.

A stronger international approach would combine careful screening with cooperation between source countries, museums, auction houses, researchers and law-enforcement agencies. By making it harder to sell objects with questionable histories, the market can reduce the economic incentives that encourage further looting.

Yemen Needs Better Records, Research and Long-Term Protection

Yemen’s antiquities authorities face substantial obstacles in responding to the crisis. Archaeological surveys have stopped, foreign research missions have departed and the country lacks a coordinated system capable of protecting sites and tracking missing objects across fragmented areas of authority.

These weaknesses make it difficult to assess the full scale of the losses. Researchers cannot easily revisit some locations, compare new observations with earlier surveys or determine whether an artifact has been removed. Even when a missing object appears overseas, incomplete records may complicate efforts to prove its origin and pursue its return.

Thamer has called for a comprehensive register of destroyed archaeological sites and antiquities smuggled and sold abroad. Such a database could help authorities document damage, identify missing collections and support restitution claims.

A useful register would bring together information from museum inventories, archaeological surveys, government records, photographs and credible reports of missing artifacts. Digital documentation could also help preserve information that might otherwise disappear if physical archives were damaged or inaccessible.

However, building an effective system would require coordination and sustained resources. Records must be checked for accuracy, updated when new evidence becomes available and protected against unauthorized alteration. Authorities would also need to cooperate with museums, researchers, international organizations and communities familiar with local archaeological sites.

Local communities are particularly important because residents may be the first to notice unauthorized excavation, damage to monuments or suspicious movements of artifacts. Providing them with practical ways to report concerns, while avoiding unnecessary risks to their safety, could strengthen protection in areas where government monitoring is limited.

International partners can assist by supporting documentation projects, training conservation specialists and helping preserve museum records. Such cooperation should complement Yemeni expertise and respect the country's authority over its cultural property.

Protecting Yemen’s Heritage Is About Preserving Historical Identity

The destruction of an archaeological site is not simply the loss of an old building or an attractive object. It can eliminate evidence about how people lived, traded, worshipped, governed themselves and interacted with neighboring societies.

Yemen’s cultural heritage encompasses thousands of years of history, including the remains of ancient kingdoms, historic Islamic monuments, traditional urban architecture and collections that illuminate the country's changing cultural landscape. These different layers contribute to a broader understanding of Yemen and its place in regional and global history.

When an artifact disappears without documentation, researchers may lose the ability to answer questions that cannot be resolved through written sources alone. When a museum is destroyed, its collections and the records connecting them to particular places may be lost together. When an ancient settlement is looted, future archaeological work may be permanently compromised.

The consequences also affect the people who live among these landmarks. Historic buildings and archaeological locations can provide a sense of continuity during periods of political upheaval. They can support education, research and, when circumstances permit, cultural tourism and local economic activity.

The preservation of heritage should therefore not be treated as a luxury that can wait until a conflict ends. Preventive action during a crisis can reduce the scale of future reconstruction and protect evidence that would otherwise be impossible to replace.

Al-Baydani has warned that Yemen could lose more of its history while already struggling to preserve what remains. His concern reflects the fundamental problem facing the country: every additional loss makes the task of reconstructing the national historical record more difficult.

The Road Ahead Requires Cooperation and Accountability

No single project can solve Yemen's heritage emergency. The security of archaeological sites should be enhanced, inventories improved and reliable, and professional conservation should be provided, while avoiding damage by unauthorized excavations and improving awareness of the damage caused by such excavations. To prevent trafficking, it is also necessary to focus on the seller, the middleman and the buyer who fuel the demand for things taken without permission.

The first and foremost concern is to document vulnerable sites and remaining collections as accurately as possible. Where physical protection is not possible, photographs, inventories and location records can aid in the preservation of information for future investigations and recovery efforts.

International museums and auction houses should be more closely collaborated with by the authorities. There needs to be an examination of the evidence by institutions, disclosure of relevant ownership information where appropriate, and cooperation with credible independent reviews where Yemeni officials identify objects of concern. Establishing clear procedures can help in distinguishing between items of historical export and those which may have been recently looted.

Meanwhile, cultural heritage protection should be based on evidence, while simultaneously keeping cultural heritage alive. All allegations of smuggling or illegal ownership should be thoroughly investigated and there should never be an assumption of personal responsibility for individual incidents without supporting information. Explicit and equitable processes and records will enhance the legitimacy of restitution initiatives.

Recovery over a longer time horizon will require the restoration of Yemen's ability to deal with archaeological sites and museums. This involves rebuilding affected infrastructure, developing training programs for specialists and developing processes to work around political and administrative hurdles.

The international community can aid in this effort by providing support for preservation, enhancing cooperation in the anti-trafficking efforts, and helping to repatriate artefacts that are known to have been illegally removed. Collectors and commercial institutions can play a part by turning down dubious gaps in ownership.

In conclusion, the preservation of Yemen's ancient heritage is dependent on the awareness that cultural property is not limited to being a marketable property. It's significance is based on the history, collective memory, cultural identity that it holds.

After over 10 years of war, Yemen has already lost a lot. Restarting the conflict would put further archaeological sites, historic cities and museum collections at risk, and institutional fragility remains a serious obstacle to preservation of that which remains.

When an artifact is lost its disappearance is hardly noticed in the midst of human suffering during war. However, every missing item may be a completely missing page in the history of a civilization. Such action will not only be a conservation issue but an obligation to future generations as well.

The key issue is what can be done today to prevent further loss, enhance lost item monitoring, and ensure that cultural heritage is not lost to the violence and business interests in the conflict. The answer will depend on the willingness of authorities and international institutions to take Yemen's history seriously and to cooperate and have credible evidence.

As highlighted by Al-Baydani, these objects are more than valuable possessions. They are a testament to thousands of years of civilization. When they go, a portion of their history goes with them, if they can't be recorded.